A supply-side shock, such as an increase in labor productivity, would shift AS outward -- there is a greater potential to produce at each and every price level. We can see this change in figure 1 to the left. This shock, in time, creates an excess supply of goods (Y* > Y^R) and puts downward pressure on the price level. As prices fall, purchasing power increase reflecting an increase in the ability to spend (i.e., a movement from A to B). The net result in an increase in output and spending and a lower price level.

In figure 2 to the left, we have a demand-side shock perhaps the result of an increase in government spending. This shock shifts the AD relation outward. Initially there is an excess demand for goods (A to B) evidenced by a depletion of inventories. Given that potential output has not changed, in time this excess demand will cause the price level to increase . As prices increase, purchasing power falls and the ability to spend decreases (B to C). The net result of this shock is an increase in the price level with no change in output or real spending.

Costs = f(wages)

Prices = α[Costs]

where 'α' is some markup factor (α > 1.0) The above two relationships allow for the establishment of a relationship between the level of output and changes in the price level.

2. The Phillips Curve In 1958 A.W. Phillips established an empirical relationship between wage inflation and the gap between the actual level of unemployment 'u' and the natural rate of unemployment 'u*' The natural rate of unemployment is defined as that rate where there is no upward nor downward pressure on wage rates. A rate of unemployment 'u_high' above this natural rate would imply slack in labor markets such that wages would be expected to fall.  A rate of unemployment 'u_low' below the natural rate would signal tight labor markets such that wages are being bid upwards as employers attempt to fill out the ranks of their required labor force. The parameter 'b' represents that rate at which wages adjust to tightness or slack in labor markets.

% Δw = -β(u-u*)

if u > u* then

%Δw <0

%Δw > 0,

3. Okun's Law A third empirical relationship is Okun's law which states that for every percentage point 'u' exceeds 'u*', growth in Real GDP is 2.5% below the rate of growth in Potential Output in the U.S. economy.

%ΔY^R - %ΔY* = -2.5(u - u*)

This expression can be rewritten as:

(u - u*) = Φ(%ΔY^R - %ΔY*)

Finally given our markup equation:

Prices = α(wages) or   %ΔP =   %Δw

i.e., price inflation is related to wage inflation, we can develop the following relationships:

%Δw = -β(u-u*)

and

(u-u*) = -Φ(%ΔY^R - %ΔY*)

or

%ΔP = [-β(-Φ(%ΔY^R - %ΔY*)]

or given

θ = (-β)Φ,

%ΔP = θ(%ΔY^R - %ΔY*)

In this final expression, we find that changes in the price level are related to the difference between the ability to buy goods and services in a particular economy Y^R and the ability to produce those goods and services Y*. If:

%ΔY^R_t > %ΔY* 

%ΔP > 0

• Aggregate Demand
• Aggregate Supply
• Excess Demand for Goods
• Excess Supply of Goods
• Inflation
• Markup (The)
• Natural Rate of Unemployment
• Okun's Law
• Output Gap
• Product Markets
• Phillips Curve
• Price Level
• Wage Inflation
• Wants and Needs